International - Sanitation

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Sanitation

"UDDT at rural area (5984471812)" by SuSanA Secretariat - via Wikimedia Commons 

Sanitation in informal settlements: A networked Problem

Sanitation is a challenge in all parts of the world. Developed nations continually face challenges of growing populations and maintaining working systems, but developing nations face these issues and more. According to the article produced by Colin Mcfarlane for IIED many common sanitation challenges include perception of sanitation as a private good, misplaced community and national priorities, political will, unaccountable public departments, education, and discrimination. These challenges are not independent of each other and they must be conceptualized within the context of the lives of the urban poor.

Mcfarline’s main thesis is a belief that “if sanitation solutions are to work, they must be rooted in […] contexts, lives, and perception of the poor.” Citing his multi-country analysis, they found solutions must be context-specific. Thus global initiatives need to be location specific and “understanding the context and challenges of a particular group in particular cities” will make for a more effective approach.

What is most interesting concept here is that of sites of entitlement as a reflection of moral economies. Sites of entitlement are areas in which a groups’ understanding of their entitlement, or lack-there-of, is dictated by their every day experiences, interactions, and relations with other people, the government, and other systems. Moral economies are a groups’  understanding of what the state should provide verse what other actors (private sector or NGOs) should provide for access and maintenance; in this case, specifically referring to sanitation systems.

He states “[Moral economies] are made socially and [are] subject to change through different individual circumstances, collective struggles, and changing conditions within and beyond neighborhoods”. This idea of moral economies as reflective of a specific communities experience is important. One could imagine communities in urban New York USA to have entirely different needs, wants, and experiences from communities in rural Louisiana. Why, then, is our approach to global aid different? Why is there continual persistence in the belief of copy and paste methodology?

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The article is specific to urban sanitation, but this is an important lens for environmental engagement and community development as a whole. As is the case with successful urban sanitation projects, the larger umbrella of development would benefit from a networked process approach that is geographically and contextually specific. Development viewed through the scope of sites of entitlement influenced by moral economies that cater to and engage with specific communities based on their needs will make for better development. 

Local- E-Waste in the EU and lots of happy tidbits (titbits if you aren't American)

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E-Waste in the EU

By bleahbleahbleah via Wikimedia Commons

We are in an era where electronics are an ever growing part of human life on Earth. People from the first world to the developing world produce an estimated 40 million tonnes of electronic waste. The rate of consumption is made worse by falling prices and cheaper production. Disposable electronics are now within the reach of many more people as countries like India and China’s middle class expand. Countries like Myanmar are seeing massive expansions of electronic use as businesses expand their markets into previously limited access countries. As the demand for electronic goods increase, many countries suffer the consequences of resource extraction, cheap labor, little return to producers, and other environmental and human exploitation.

There are many good things that come from integrating technology into everyday life. Making these benefits accessible to communities and under privileged groups is especially important to reducing the poverty gaps, say for instance, education and creating a competitive advantage in youth populations. Farming is another industry that benefits from electronics by helping to preserve foods, keeping the market stable and through knowledge sharing. With all the positives that do exist, one important consideration is often over looked in the push to improve the socioeconomics of a country or community through electronic access – what happens to the electronics afterwards? E-waste impacts on communities and the environment is equally as important to consider as the resource extraction impacts and the community improvements.

E-waste has major environmental and human health impacts. Transportation alone is a massive endeavor and less efficient than it has been in the past. Components of electronics often include toxic substances, such as arsenic, CFCs, lead, and mercury. These compounds are detrimental to human health and ecosystems that often have limited safety standards. As a result of these concerns many countries have created electronic waste recycling systems, and many countries have attempted to ban the export of e-waste. The Basel Convention was created to reduce the transport of hazardous goods from developed countries to less developed countries. Included in this treaty is the transport of non-functional toxic electronics. However, illegal e-waste trade and exports continue and this greatly impacts developing nations.

In March, the UN claimed 90% of the world’s e-waste is illegally traded or dumped and is valued at $19 billion USD. This is a staggering amount. What is more surprising, however, is the findings that mismanagement of within the European countries is ten times the volume of exported e-waste.

The article states:

"1.3 million tonnes of discarded electronics departed the EU in undocumented mixed exports, of which an estimated 30% was electronic waste, and 70% functioning equipment.

This means more than 4 million tonnes of e-waste was illegally managed or traded across and within the borders of European countries. The EU report links fraud, tax evasion, money laundering, and organized crime to cases of e-waste mismanagement.

What does this means for countries like Myanmar? One, this highlights some of the challenges Myanmar may face in the future. If countries with a history of strong legal enforcement and environmental awareness still suffer from the impacts of electronic wastes, then Myanmar must learn from the mistakes the EU has already had. But most importantly, as Myanmar increases its consumption of electronic goods the importance of regulation and enforcement becomes an increasingly important issue.

What is more, is a consideration of aid projects focused on technology access and improvement. For Myanmar to be prepared for the upcoming economic boom and access, there needs to be a mechanism for the country do handle, recycle, and dispose of electronic wastes. The existing informal systems of recycling continue to pose a threat to the communities that live and work in those conditions. Electronic waste will add a complexity to this problem as well as introducing new challenges to the local ecosystems. Finally, a major change that must be present in Myanmar is in the psychology of recycling, trash, and sanitation. With minimal effectiveness of national and local law, the greatest impact and prevention will come from the community. Education and cultural changes towards waste management will help prevent the introduction of e-waste toxins into the environment.

Local - Reclaiming Land and other Notables

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Reclaiming Land from the Sea

Oceans, seas, rivers and the resources from within them have always been a challenging ownership debate. These challenges are made more complicated by countries that extend their boarders artificially through land reclamation from the ocean.

This is not a new concept. Land reclamation has been the solution to many countries economic, political, and social insecurities. For many, land reclamation is to be expected. Over many years oceans eat away at beaches and rivers carve through rocks or change paths on their way to the sea. Raising water levels and plate tectonics can turn peninsulas into islands and sink islands into reefs. All countries lose land through this natural process of erosion.

As far back as 6,000 year ago, Sumerians where practicing land reclamation from the rivers in Mesopotamia for agriculture. In 11^th century Netherlands, land reclamation from swamps and bogs were used to provide more farm land for communities and reclamation from the sea expand political territory. More recently land reclamation projects occur throughout the United States for tourism along beach fronts and cities like Hong Kong, Singapore, and Dubai rely on this practice for housing space and economic zones.

More recently, China has begun expanding their territory into the sea by adding an estimated 1,170ha of land. Reclamation activities in the South China Sea by China have sparked lots of controversy especially in light of China’s claims to islands within close proximity to ASEAN nations. Essentially, China claims most of the islands within the South China Sea effectively giving them sovereignty over what many countries recognize as international water ways. Fueling this controversy is the Philippines decision to take China to international court over the disputed claims and China’s open refusal to participate.

The situation in the South China Sea has obvious globally and regional importance such as military security, political influence, resource access, trade routes, etc. The decision to reclaim land in these waters has added to the debate over China’s intentions over the past few years. But, while political impacts of China's activates are an important and necessary discussion, less attention has been paid to the environmental implications of the reclamation projects or the impacts these environmental changes will have on economics and the communities in the region. (More on this issue here).

impacts:

Reclamation of any kind, by its very nature, changes an area’s natural systems ranging from aquatic, terrestrial, biological and in some cases atmospheric, though the latter is less oblivious. Reclaimed islands are usually built on shallow reefs that may have at one time been islands or at some point in the future become islands. This process, however, is usually slow, allowing for adaptation in the area of natural systems. So, the aquatic impacts of reclamation, while unseen, are often large and the potential impact of the 1,170ha of land reclaimed by China is no small thing.

Ocean currents are a major consideration for impact. Currents will be disrupted and slowed as islands impede the path of water over shallow reefs. Additionally shallow reefs provide a large area for ocean heat absorption and dissipation into moving water. This is incredibly influential in storm systems in the tropics as energy released into the atmosphere is directly affected by shallow reefs. Currents also impact coastal erosion and sand deposition. Building reefs and islands is often a technique used to reduce this effect, but this simply displaces erosion and deposition to another region. This has serious international impacts. (This link has more on reef heat budgets.)

Island building creates more land. In the ocean, building land means a continual battle against constant erosion and continual replenishing of lost land from an external source. Typically this source will come from dredged sea floor but top soils and other materials will necessarily come from land, which again displaces the strain of resources.

Atmospheric change as a result of land reclamation is much less known. This, in part, is because atmospheric changes are typically large scale and a result of major inputs over time. As building islands disrupt water currents, islands do the same for air currents. They create a new path for wind and in some cases can redirect storm systems by adding a physical barrier. In the South China Sea this can be a blessing or a curse depending on the routes a storm takes. Additionally, islands create a new input for atmospheric heat and greenhouse gasses. This creates a new input for nutrients that were once trapped in the sea bed back into the atmosphere. Reclaimed land specifically for human populations have the same impacts as they would on mainland regions, simply displaced onto an island.

Biological impacts of land reclamation from the ocean are huge. Reefs are an ecological hotbed for biodiversity. Coral, fish, and microorganisms are impacted in a number of ways. Disruption of their habitat from dredging leads to stress and death, migration into different areas, and the introduction of new species. Suspended particles and sediment introduced into the water column reduces light availability for photosynthesizing organisms, which disrupts the beginning of the food chain.  Changing currents also reduce the availability of food entering the region which further strains the ecosystem. New inputs into the ocean from human and animal habitation, such as fossil fuels, plastics, human and animal waste, etc., brings about changes to the aquatic system.

Above the water, there are huge biological changes as well. The ocean provides a natural barrier to plant and animal migration. Creating islands reduces the distance invasive species must travel by air or floating in water. Seeds and spores transported from non-local soils introduce potentially invasive species as well and can challenge the survival of local species near land. (More on this can be found here, here, and here)

Environmental impacts are an important consideration, but they are not separate from the economic or sociocultural spheres. The reclamation projects have huge economic effects in this region that are closely tied to the environment. Damage caused by dredging, displacing aquatic life, and altering the ecosystems reduces availability of fish resources. China’s claim to islands and their reclamation projects further reduces access to fishing waters that are necessary to many countries in the region. The impacts on tourism may also be felt in the future. Many communities rely on the pristine beach experience or on the aquatic life in the waters. Increased beach erosion displaced to these communities at risk will damage their tourism – either through direct loss of income from a drop in tourism or the cost of re-sanding lost beach fronts. The same argument can be made with the loss of aquatic life.

Loss of livelihoods and culture is another consideration. The most visible impact will be to fisherman. Financial burden to fisherman will become evident as fishing channels, trade routes, and viable fishing areas change. Expenses such as fuel and boat upgrades will increase as distances to fishing grounds move and loss of traditional fishing grounds and even methods will be impacted. Inevitably, communities will be forced spend more on fishing or change livelihoods. These will have effects on local communities’ access to food and market prices will change in response to fishing. Countries that rely on this area of the sea (predominantly the Philippines) will be impacted the most.

The arguments for why land reclamation is needed in the South China Sea hold some valid arguments. However, they may go against international agreements (that are being brought to court), undermine economics of ASEAN countries, directly impact livelihoods of citizens from other nations, and have environmental repercussions too numerous to count.

For an interesting read that argues for the benefits of land reclamation, check this link out (note it is by the International Association of Dredging Companies)

Interntaional - New Face of Political Prisoners, Nianjin China, and the good things I’ve found

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Tianjin China: a reminder of human health safety

"Mina da passagem" by Leandro Neumann Ciuffo Wikimedia Commons

The explosions that rocked Tianjin China hit headlines on most news station around the world last Wednesday. The massive explosion could be felt kilometers away and was reportedly visible from space. The shockwave from the first blast was equivalent to an earthquake measuring 2.3 on the Richter scale (or three tons of TNT). The second blast was equivalent to 21 tons of TNT that was then followed by a series of smaller explosions.

With at least 70 people missing, 114 dead, nearly 700 injured, 6,000 people displaced, and 17,000 homes were damaged.

According to the BBC, the storage facility that exploded had only received a license to handle hazardous materials in May. Eight months before obtaining the license they were operating without proper documents.

There were a number of poisonous chemicals present during the blast, including:

700-ton sodium cyanide, 800-ton ammonium nitrate and 500-ton potassium nitrate

Two things come to mind: what are the uses of these chemicals and what are the environmental risks in the area?

For all three toxins, the environmental risk is short-term and thus future exposure to the chemicals is less likely due to the solubility in water. However, short exposure to high concentrations can lead to major health issues.

Sodium cyanide(NaCN) is a white crystal that is water soluble. Combined with water, NaCN produces a gas hydrogen cyanide (HCN) can be extremely deadly in low dosages. It is used primarily in mining to extract gold from ore (process explained here) but has historically been used by both the Nazi and US as a form of execution. NaCN breaks down naturally over time and the process can be sped up using hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) to form less dangerous reactants. Water contaminated by NaCN can be treated with bleach to remove the cyanide.

Ammonium nitrate(NH₄NO₃ or N₂H₄O₃) is a white crystal and is water soluble. It is used primarily in fertilizers but is often used in mining as an explosive due to its volatile nature. Most of the environmental risk is produced during fires in the form of poisonous gas and because of the flammable nature of N₂H₄O₃. Water systems may become contaminated but will biodegrade over time.

Potassium nitrate(KNO) is a white gray crystal. It is used most famously in gunpowder but can also be used in the process of food preservative, fertilizers, pharmaceuticals, and solar power. It is non-combustible but enhances combustion of other chemicals.

The Tianjin tragedy is a reminder of the importance of human and environmental safety regulations for storage and transport of chemicals. It is also a reminder that the desire for precious metals have impacts that go beyond simple economics and extraction affects. The processes, chemicals, and people all along the supply chain carry risks. 

Local - New Face of Political Prisoners, Nianjin China, and the good things I’ve found

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New Face of Political Prisoners

Insin Prision via wikicommons

Over the past few years, Myanmar has very publicly pushed the image of political prisoner release. In fact, over the past few years the country has released over 100 political prisoners. Last month President Thein Sein released 6,966 prisoners on a presidential pardon, however, only 13 political prisoners were among them.  

In 2013, Thein Sein stated that all political prisoners would be released by the end of that year. To date, 158 still remain in prison and a growing number are awaiting trial - currently over 444 people. People on this list include monks, protesters, lawyers, journalists, civilians connected to protesters.

The term political prisoner usually invokes a specific image: an older military opposition leader, or maybe a wealthy influential politician and family, or even a religious leader and protesters. But in countries like Myanmar, where illegal land grabs is normally conducted by government, their cronies, and armed groups, the face of political prisoners is increasingly becoming the everyday farmer and land rights activists. Land related arrests are often linked to government interests or individual government official’s relationship to business interests.

Recently the government arrested a prominent land rights advocate in Karen State. U Saw Maung Gyi was arrested August 7^th under the section 17(1) of the Unlawful Associations Act. Farmers and activists sleeping at the 88 Karen Generation Student Organization office, where U Saw Maung Gyi worked, were arrested and fined for “staying overnight outside their home district without government permission”.

Illegal land grabs have a number of impacts on the environment, on the communities, and the country as a whole. Environmental impacts of illegally grab lands include unregulated land use by occupying groups, continued illegal activities such as logging or mining, and often a transition from low environmental impact farming to high industrial inputs. Communities suffer from population loss and dismantling of community networks. Illegal land grabs lead to high numbers of displacement it often involves private or military security forces and violent interactions.

Additionally there are macro level impacts to land grabbing. Large international corporations looking to begin work in Myanmar are increasingly under the pressure to have clean land transactions along the entire supply chain. For example, Coca Cola’s supplier was accused of land grabbing in Cambodia. As a result Coca Cola is reportedly leading the “zero tolerance for land grabs globally”. The company plans to invest $200 million USD but still faces challenges. Land grab challenges in which business may face in Myanmar can dissuade large investment in the face of poor public opinion and expensive lawsuit.  

To address land grabs, reforms on a number of fronts must occur. A necessary first step is legal reform. The Vacant, Fallow, and Virgin Land Law (2012), Farmland Law 2012, 2008 Constitution, and Land Acquisition Act of 1894 all have sections addressing land use. Protections need to be better defined and mechanisms for complains need to be established and accessible. Investment laws must also address land confiscation. Local and foreign companies need to be held legally accountable. Additionally, enforcement of the laws must include an educated police force in the current relevant laws.

In addition to reforms, accountability mechanisms must be in place. Local, state, and national government systems must have ways to report and contest stolen lands by individuals, businesses, and the government itself. This includes not arresting villagers and farmers for peaceful protests. Independent assessments and transparency on development projects in preliminary planning to project completion should be available to the public. Effective documentation and transparency can reduce risks of land grabs and confrontation.

Finally, the existence of political prisoners must end. The arbitrary arrest of land rights advocates “exemplifies the government’s persecution of vocal opponents of land grabs by officials and their business associates”. The very existence of political prisoners perpetuate these arbitrary arrests and will most likely continue to be used as a standard by individual government officials.

International - Typhoon season, World Bank Fails and memories international

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A World Bank Fail

World Bank Building Jaakko H. via Wikimedia Commons

The World Bank takes a huge step back following years of progress and reform. According to a press release by Oxfam international the World Bank takes an unsettling stance towards environmental and social protections. Their 133 page draft safeguard policy “contradicts World Bank President Jim Yong Kim’s commitment to ensure that the bank’s new rules will not weaken or dilute existing mandatory environmental and social protection measures”.

These existing measures are important as the World Bank has a history of funding projects that ultimately destroyed environments and communities. They often argued they hold little responsibility for project implementation and countries are responsible for legal action. In recent years more accountability on the side of the World Bank was called for.

A number of independent environment and human rights groups have voiced their concern about the new diluted safeguards. Concerns include removal of “mandatory safeguards and accountability mechanisms” in favor of “aspirational standards” and “allowing the use of ‘preventative’ violence by security forces.  Additionally, accountability of projects seems to become the sole responsibility of the nation in which the project is conducted. This is counter intuitive for a donor as the projects are often conducted in developing countries where rule of law, enforcement, policy, and political will are lacking.

To put this into perspective, data from 1980s to 1999 the World Bank had a failure rate of 80% in Africa for their Structural Adjustment Programs. Twenty six projects conducted in countries included Gambia, Ghana, and Uganda just before civil war broke out.

Don’t believe me about the World Bank’s influence on global development? Here’s a not so happy story from April this year in the Huffington Post  and a study that discusses their overall estimated failure rate of 39% in 2013 according to Ika et al. 

Local - Typhoon season, World Bank Fails and memories

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Please consider donating towards flood relief for Myanmar. Follow this link to read about the situation and the organizations helping

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Cyclones: political ecology perspective

"Cyclone Catarina from the ISS on March 26 2004" by Earth Observations Laboratory, Johnson Space Center. - NASA Modifications by Tomf688. Licensed under Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons.

We are in the peak of tropical storm season - between May and September. Cyclones, typhoons and hurricanes are essentially regional words for the same thing and with some variation in wind speed categorization. Cyclones are responsible for recent flooding, property and coastal damage and loss of life in many countries.  Since March, typhoon Chan-hom, Soudelor, Maysak, and Noul have had estimated $1.79 billion USD in damage.

Understanding the full impacts of cyclones requires a political ecology perspective. In a country already struggling to regain a footing economically, Myanmar suffers from massive human rights issues, environmental degradation, political unrest and war. Like so many countries that match this description, Myanmar’s troubles are compounded when natural disasters strike; the most recent flooding resulting in hundreds dead and millions displaced.

Economic:

Cyclones harm human life and society indiscriminately, but the impact on a developing nation is staggering and compounded by annual cyclone occurrence.  Hsiang and Jina 2014 study suggests that combined effects of global warming and increase cyclone activity can lead to combined global loss of $9.7 trillion USD (an excellent summary here).

Following an event like this, Myanmar’s natural resources should go towards immediate relief and long-term reconstruction. However, this is financial capital that could have been used to get the country from its present point, say point B to point C that must now necessarily be used to get the country from point A back to point B.

In addition to stagnating growth potential, national and international financial assistance is necessarily diverted from development to relief. Local projects become redesigned to address the new natural disaster or long-term problems. Potential global aid transitions to address the economic crisis cyclones leave in their wake.

Socio- Political:

Ethnic identity is a massive part of Myanmar culture. Geographic location often reflects specific ethnic identities. The growing number of IDPs and ethno-religious tension contribute to the social and cultural insecurities. Just one example is Myanmar’s hesitation to publicly address the Rohingya population.

Additionally Myanmar’s political scene is complicated and long. Like all countries in political transition, decade old decisions made by previous governments continue to impact the present political atmosphere. Similar to other regional countries the previous military junta happens to be the same ‘democratically elected’ representatives in the current government.  Some meaningful change appeared to be within reach, but the upcoming election and military fears have shown that the true power is still held within the military. Military conflict, protests, and opposition to the current government also contribute to the unstable and uncertain future in this country.

Here again cyclones have an impact on the seemingly unrelated social and political aspects of Myanmar life. Politically sensitive areas and marginalized populations become more marginalized as government aid is unequally distributed. The already unpublicized conflicts continue to wage but are now masked in the background even more by the natural disaster.

Specifically in Myanmar, the timing of the floods couldn’t be worse as the elections are just about to begin and voter registrations, as well as electoral candidates, are sidelined in the wake of the cyclone’s destruction. One of the more dangerous problems is internal and international belief that a few successful government interventions may lead to broader support of the existing political party. As is the case in many natural disaster relief situations, the groups who get effective aid tend to become supporters of those providing the aid, thus making the distribution of aid a very politically motivated decision.

The Environment:

Cyclone impact on the environment is closely tied to land use. Poor agricultural practices and deforestation leads to massive landslides in mountainous regions and serious flooding in the deltas. This also contributes to loss of entire crop yields which reduces food access country wide. Outdated or nonexistent infrastructure contributes to long term property damage.

Coastal regions suffer slightly differently. Like inland locations, erosion rates increase but as a result of both rising ocean water and delta flooding. Land becomes permeated with salt and becomes unproductive for many years.  Fisheries suffer from upstream debris and pollution in the waterway and damage to fish habitat.

A partial solution:

Solutions exist that can help to address some of these environment problems. Coastal impacts of cyclones can be reduced by strategic regrowth of once extensive mangrove forests. A solution India has implemented with success. Mangroves reduce the impacts of rising waters on arable land by providing a buffer zone for impact. It also helps to protect fisheries from damage and reduces erosion.

Environmental policy that encourages sustainable agriculture methodology can go a long way to reducing land damage and flooding. Additionally, stricter development policies focused on reducing exposed earth, for example, from excessive logging, strip mining, or unregulated construction can reduce flood damage, erosion, and mud slides.

From an environmental perspective, these solutions seem limited to impacting only the environment. Broadening the scope from environmental to include socio-political and economic perspectives produces a more impactful solution. For instance, reducing damage has economic implications. In a developing country, preemptive environmental policy is a useful strategy to prevent economic setbacks and further marginalization of at risk groups during natural disasters.

Of course environmental policy and reform is only one piece of the solution to the issues in Myanmar. But, proper implementation and enforcement can have long lasting impacts on the country beyond simply the environment. Support for environmental protections should be one of the strategic steps for Myanmar’s development plan.